ENGB3 June 2010 Question 4

Language Change

Text I, having been published three days after the FA cup final, reflects the time it would have taken to write, edit and print the souvenir edition.  Whereas, Text J appears almost synchronous as the information is literally updated minute by minute. With this in mind, it is clear how language has changed dramatically over time.

In terms of graphology, it is immediately apparent that Text I seems busy and cluttered. The font would not necessarily be used today as it is difficult to read.  However, as white-space was a premium, having such a font would mean more words could be included on the page.  Moreover, the separation of columns through vertical lines aids clarity and ensures minimal wastage.  This is in stark contrast to Text J where, because of changes in technology and the ease of communication, white-space is no longer an issue, ensuring clarity and ease when reading the article.  However, as Text I is a souvenir edition, many people would buy the paper for reasons of nostalgia with the intention of keeping it for years to come. On the other hand, it would be unlikely that people would keep the information recorded in Text J, suggesting the latter text is ephemeral and, following the aftermath of the day’s celebrations, may not be looked at again. This difference highlights how attitudes towards the printed page have changed.

The discourse structure of each text reveals clear changes which have been prompted by technology.  The latter text shows how each update is placed at the top of the page ensuring the reader is able to gain the most up-to-date information without scrolling down the page. The timings reflect how technology has enabled information to reach the reader almost instantly.  This may be contrasted to Text I which was published three days later.  However, whilst Text I obviously underwent a process of editing, we cannot dismiss that a similar, albeit quicker, editing process is at work in Text J. Being for the BBC website, it is unlikely that they would allow errors in orthography and grammar to hinder their reputation and, therefore, we may assume that the posts were edited before being submitted onto the webpage.

In terms of grammar, Text I’s sentence structure reveals greater complexity and subordination whereas Text J’s use of shorter sentences and elliptical structures lends itself to a chatty, informal register: ‘no hanging about is there?’; this colloquial expression and use of idioms ensures the relationship between text producer and reader is one of.  Alternatively, Text I reveals a distinctly formal tone that speaks of the class structures alive in Britain during the 1930s.  It has been suggested that with the Second World War, many class boundaries were blurred and today we have a relationship based on influential power rather than the power associated with rank and position.  This is highlighted through the use of proper nouns in each text. Whilst the Cardiff boss is ‘Dave Jones’, the dignitaries within Text I are referred with clear formality, for example, the Portsmouth chairman is ‘Mr Robert Blyth’.  In addition, we can note the informality of the term ‘boss’ in contrast to ‘chairman of directors’; through technology in the form of the media, the public are able to recognise those in positions of authority which has, in part, led to an increased sense of informality and familiarity.  In addition, the naming of the players is one thing which seems consistent across both texts. However, whilst in Text I, Manchester’s ‘Tilson’ is referred to using his surname, this speaks of the public school system where surnames were used as a matter of course. In contrast, the use of surnames in Text J is part of football’s jargon and is often a matter of economy when commentating. Moreover, the use of names, such as ‘Kanu’ and ‘Diarra’, show football is now a multi-national sport with players of foreign dissent playing for British teams; this reflects changes in demographics as the people move with ease from country to country. Moreover, whilst football has been a game notoriously associated with men, Text J’s Caroline Cheese reveals how the game of football has developed to include women.  The fact that women are now able to report on an FA cup final indicates how gender attitudes have changed over time. Moreover, Caroline Cheese’s speech style mirrors that of the male contributors: ‘Great stuff’ and ‘still plenty of time to vote’; whilst theorists have, in the past, recognised women as have convoluted expression and empty adjectives, Cheese’s elliptical sentence structure and assertive delivery is more reminiscent of the language of men.  It seems that to be accepted in, what may be deemed as a typically masculine environment, Cheese uses language that is align to her male peers.

In terms of lexis, Text I reflects the bygone years through the reference to ‘Empire’ and places the article firmly within a particular historical context as does ‘telegram’, a form of communication now obsolete through technological advances. In addition, the exclamatory ‘Bravo’ is a term which we would now use ironically as it has increasingly archaic in its usage. Furthermore, aspects of punctuation are now obsolete as ‘to-night’ is no longer hyphenated, revealing how the word has been blended to form the single word. Text J’s use of ‘en-masse’ shows how a term borrowed from the Latin has now become an integral part of the English language; as people travel abroad, more and more words enter our language, revealing how language is able to change through the influences from other languages. In addition, the use of the word ‘pesky’ as in ‘the pesky technology breakdown’ reveals how words may be ameliorated; ‘pesky’ may once have meant naughty or mischievous but now it is mildly irritating.  The reference to breakdown in technology as being ‘pesky’ shows an element of confidence that the technology would be easily restored, revealing how technology has become an integral part of our lives. However, a noticeable difference between both texts is the attitude towards football.  Text I seems ‘gentlemanly’ as Mr Robert Blyth is keen to ‘congratulate the winners’ and the dignitaries are ‘very proud’ as they recognise ‘a great achievement’.  The language is tame in contrast to Text J’s emotive and highly charged language that draws on the semantic field of a battle-ground: ‘we couldn’t see it through to the death for them’; as football has become increasingly more commercialised, there is more pending on a win which may have contributed towards the evocative football jargon which we have today, showing how attitudes towards football have caused language to change.

In conclusion, through technological advancements, the influence from other cultures and changing social and cultural attitudes, a sustained contrast of both texts reveal how language has changed over time.

 

 

Tom – 2 years 7 months

As Tom is in the garden with both parents, I would expect them to interact with Tom which, according to Vygotsky, should help develop his language acquisition through social conditioning.  As the conversation is being recorded, this may mark a memorable occasion or that his mother simply wants to record his language development for the purposes of nostalgia.  Whilst this may affect the mother’s language through Observers’ Paradox, Tom clearly has no awareness of being recorded and is easily distracted by the interrogative, ‘are you going for a ride?’  In addition, as Tom is 2 years 7 months, I would expect both parents to use elements of Child Directed Speech in order to sustain Tom’s interest.  The introductory paragraph uses the information of the exam question and data but, rather than simply repeat the information, it is developed in order to inform the wider context (you will need this level of perception for AO3).

Then, you need to discuss the data through each relevant linguistic method (this will ensure a systematic response necessary for AO1).  Remember, your analysis MUST be data-led.  You discuss the data and then draw on relevant concepts and ideas from language study (AO2).  You discuss AO2 in light of the data – not the other way round.

In terms of grammar, it is evident that Tom is firmly established in the Telegraphic Stage moving into the Multi-word Stage as Tom’s utterances have clear grammatical complexity: ‘Yeah (.) can you get the bits out?’; within this interrogative it is clear that Tom has sound syntactical accuracy.  However, it is necessary to be tentative when discussing stage theory as children’s move from one stage to the next is a gradual process although, according to Crystal, Tom should be within the Telegraphic stage at 2 years and 7 months.  His development may be partly attributed to social conditioning as both parents are keen to develop his language through interaction. As well as having a sound syntactical competence, his utterances not only include, subject, verb, object, as in, ‘I am on dad’s bike’, but he has clear spatial awareness evident through prepositional phrases such as, ‘in the bucket’.  Whilst the relationship to subject and verb is generally accurate, there is some inconsistency with the use of inflections: ‘it make noises’.  However, through his mother’s use of expansion, ‘it makes noises’, Tom will no doubt develop the correct subject/verb correlation in the future.  Research has shown that children, at this age, can be resistant to correction, and therefore, the use of expansion subtly conveys the correct grammatical form.  However, within the data, it seems that Tom is open to correction by his mother’s expansion of ‘dad’s bike’; it is evident that Tom has a moment of revelation as he exclaims the possessive form, conveyed through repetition and prosodic emphasis: ‘dad’s bike’.   In addition to highlighting the effect of social interaction, this example may support Piaget who suggests that children acquire language concepts when they are cognitively ready and shows that Tom is now able to grasp the possessive form as he is at the right age to do so.  However, Tom has not grasped all word classes as he omits the primary verb ‘am’ from the sentence, ‘I sitting on the bike’.  Whilst the use of the participle verb form ‘sitting’ shows evidence of linguistic development, the inconsistent use of ‘am’ suggests this grammatical structure has not been consolidated.  According to Brown and Fraser, children, at the Telegraphic Stage, do not use Function words, such as primary verbs and pronouns, accurately all the time but, in terms of pronouns, it seems that Tom has a secure understanding with the exception on line 23 when he says, ‘me (.) I need to fix dad’s bike’; the use of self-correction, in terms of the first person singular pronoun, may reflect his ability to recognise his own error or he may have initially used the incorrect pronoun because he was concentrating on his task.

In terms of lexis, Tom’s language reflects his own realm of experience.  The predominant semantic field is associated with bikes, such as, ‘handlebar’ and ‘screwdriver’; this reflects Tom’s interest in subjects which may be deemed ‘typically male’ and reflects that, through social conditioning, he is absorbing the social expectations of the male gender.  Whilst his mother speaks to him with greater regularity, I would argue that his father wields the majority of the power as Tom clearly respects his expertise when fixing a bike: ‘I trying to get the bits out dad’; through the use of ‘dad’ Tom is keen to attract the attention of his father and gain his approval. 

Due to the minimal use of the phonetic alphabet in the transcript, we may assume that Tom’s pronunciation is sound.  However, on line 14, Tom mispronounces the word ‘please’ omitting the elongated vowel sound ‘ea’ whilst emphasising the sibilant element of the word.  The fact that his mother mimics the mispronounced form may indicate shared understanding and suggest that Tom has deliberately reverted back to an earlier pronunciation in order to get his own way.  As words associated with CDS are often established through imitating children, it seems that both Tom and his mother use a ‘word’ that is reminiscent of Tom’s earlier years.  This may reflect the amount of time she spends with Tom in contrast to his father, fulfilling the role of primary care-giver normally associated with women.  The role of primary care-giver may be further explored through the use of CDS.

I would have expected both parents to use elements of CDS but Tom’s father does not speak to Tom in the same way as Tom’s mother.  He may not spend as much time with Tom and therefore does not draw upon the features associated with CDS.  Indeed, on line 34, Tom’s father speaks about Tom in the third person: ‘he has to get the bits out’, perhaps sharing some implicit humour with Tom’s mother, reflecting the fact that he may not feel so comfortable when dealing with Tom on an individual level.  Tom’s mother, on the other hand, uses many features associated with CDS.  The regular use of interrogatives encourages Tom to communicate, however, through the act of recording the conversation, she may want Tom to speak as much as possible.  In addition, she uses praise to encourage Tom: ‘excellent, you’re working very hard’; this supports Skinner who claims children acquire language through positive reinforcement and, in this case, his mother is encouraging the imaginative function of language acquisition.  Halliday proposed that children progress through seven language functions and, as Tom pretending that he is fixing dad’s bike and providing a running commentary, it shows he has progressed to the Heuritic/Imaginative functions of Halliday’s child language development revealing sound language development. 

To conclude, through close analysis of the data and by drawing on language concepts, I am able to reveal how Tom’s language acquisition supports relevant ideas from language study.

 Do avoid the first and second person when writing an academic essay.  Although it is acceptable to voice your views in your concluding paragraph.